GYPS VULTURES
Conservation Strategies, 2004
With Reports of Censuses Undertaken in Rajasthan

ABSTRACT

With the support of the Hindi-language newspaper The Rajasthan Patrika of Jaipur, censuses of White-backed and Long-billed Vultures were undertaken in Rajasthan and adjacent regions of India in early 2000 and again in December 2002. Respondents reported their results in a coupon provided by the newspaper. Average numbers of vultures reported per response decreased by 50% within the two-year period, from 8.8 to 4.3. In 2000, one half of the districts reported an average number of vultures reported per response that was greater than 8; in 2002 the median of the average number of vultures reported per district was three times lower. Population numbers of both species have therefore continued to decline such that the disappearance of both from the wild must now be anticipated.

Within the past year a consensus has emerged that the vultures are being poisoned by diclofenac, a widely used medicine for both humans and livestock of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory group of drugs (NSAIDs). It is exceptionally toxic to vultures that ingest it from carcasses of treated livestock. Unfortunately other drugs of the NSAID group, which have similar modes of action, are likely also to be toxic to vultures; a substitute must be found that is both an effective medicine and that is not toxic to vultures. It is unlikely that such a substitute will be available for use before the vultures are extinct in the wild. Emergency measures are therefore called for to ensure their long-term survival and eventual return to the environment.

No alternative now exists but to bring at least 100 birds of each of these species, and of the Slender-billed Vultures which were formerly considered a race of the Long-billed Vulture, into captivity in both specialized facilities and in zoos. In view of the uncertainty of the time required to replace diclofenac use, plans must be made to permit captive breeding such that populations and genetic diversity may be maintained. Once an effective substitute is available, vultures may then be re-introduced into the wild as have other endangered species elsewhere in the world.

The challenge posed to both private groups and government agencies in preserving this important segment of Indian wildlife is enormous; the international reputation of India's conservancy of its wildlife resources is at stake. Failure to act promptly and effectively, such that one or more of these species becomes totally extinct, will forever damage this reputation.

FOREWORD

Vultures play a vital ecological role; their importance in cleansing the environment and maintaining the balance of nature must not be under-played or ignored. The ancients understood this well and accorded due recognition to these birds. No wonder Jatayu has an honourable place in the Ramayan and the Parsi community has always venerated the birds for their role in the disposal of their dead.

In recent years, there has been a sudden and perceptible decline in the status of most species of Vultures in India and elsewhere. This is certainly a matter of serious concern. The Bombay Natural History Society has done pioneering work to bring this issue to the fore. The Tourism & Wildlife Society of India (TWSI) has rightly picked up the gauntlet and joined the efforts to focus the attention of all concerned to this crisis.

In line with this approach, the Third Birding Fair organised by the TWSI at the Mansagar lake in Jaipur during 2000 was dedicated to two species of Indian Vultures facing virtually the threat of extinction: the White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis) and the Long-billed Vulture (Gyps indicus). This was followed by the Vulture Watch Campaign, mainly through the Rajasthan Patrika, leading to the first census of vultures in the country. The outcome was the Gyps Vulture Census Report 2000, prepared by the TWSI with the help of several individuals and institutions who participated enthusiastically in the initiative, the first of its kind in India.

After a gap of two years, it was felt necessary to carry out another exercise to re-assess the status of the two endangered Gyps species. The TWSI has once again taken the responsibility in all humility, with the help and support of a large number of individuals, institutions and organizations, including some from outside the country. This time again the Rajasthan Patrika has played a key role that redounds to its credit and deserves the utmost appreciation. The results of this Second Gyps Vulture Census are being presented in this report.

However, the overall picture is grim indeed. Unless all those who care as well as those who are directly responsible and able get together to take remedial action in right earnest and with a sense of urgency, the cause of these remarkable birds will be lost forever, to the lasting shame of humankind. If this report serves to motivate action that does not allow such a calamity to happen, it would have achieved its purpose in ample measure.

INTRODUCTION

Three species of vultures, the White-backed Vulture, the Long-billed Vulture and the Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris, until recently considered a subspecies of the Long-billed Vulture; Rasmussen & Party, 2001) are now approaching extinction in India, having been very common birds less than a decade ago. This extinction process is almost without precedent in the Natural World. It is unlikely that the disappearance of any other species of bird from the Indian landscape would have had as great an impact as the disappearance of the vultures which traditionally have disposed of the carcasses of cattle and of other domestic animals in an efficient and timely manner.

In 1998 rumours about declining populations of vultures and of their local disappearances began to circulate throughout India, prompting Dr. Asad Rahmani, Director of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), to issue a "Vulture Alert" by distributing questionnaires. More than 50 responses to the first set of questionnaires were received from all over India, many documenting the increasing scarcity of Gyps vultures in areas where they had been common only a few years earlier. Dr. Rahmani then convened a Vultures Conservation Strategy Planning Meeting in Mumbai on 6 August 1999 to address their disappearance. Shortages of food and of nesting sites, pesticides, poisoning, either to kill predators or scavengers, or intentionally to kill vultures to reduce hazards to aircraft, and the appearance of a new disease factor were proposed as contributing causes for the decline of vulture populations.

The situation in Rajasthan was particularly acute. The number of pairs of White-backed Vultures breeding in Keoladeo National Park in eastern Rajasthan had dropped from 353 in 1987-1988 to 150 in 1996-97, to 25 in 197-98 and to 20 in 1998-99 (Prakash, 1999). Vultures were literally falling dead or dying from the trees.

In response, in part to obtain information on the status of vultures in all of Rajasthan and neighbouring states, and in part to inform the people of the gravity of the situation, the Tourism and Wildlife Society of India (TWSI) initiated a Vulture Census. The prominent Hindi-language daily (of Jaipur), The Rajasthan Patrika, provided the critically important support. Three advertisements were published by this newspaper in January 2000, appealing to its readers to observe and count vultures, and to fill out a coupon that was also published. The Census began on 31 January 2000 and continued through March 7. The Census attracted widespread attention (Vardhan et al., 2000).

Over the next two years, casual observations suggested that the populations declines were continuing. If mortalities had been caused by a disease, a slowing down of the rate of decline would have been expected as some birds developed resistance and as the chances of transmission from bird to bird decreased with their declining numbers. Again, the Rajasthan Patrika provided the necessary support of a second Census, which was undertaken 21-31 December 2002.

Additional support has been provided by the Rajasthan Department of Forest, Rajasthan Department of Animal Husbandry, US Fish & Wildlife Service, and Bodega Bay Institute.

This report presents the results of this Second Vulture Census and discusses the ways by which the extinction of vultures might be prevented.

INDIAN CULTURE & WILDLIFE

India has nearly 5,000 year old conservation practicing history. People regard wild animals and birds as exalted and sacred. They continue to hold usually affectionate respect for wilderness. Several animals and birds have been associated with gods and goddesses in the mythology. Sights of temples devoted to animals/birds and a prominent place given to such species inside a temple, are not uncommon even today. Buddhism and Jainism have only added to the ethos of non-violence and love for all living beings.

Vultures have received mention in Indian scriptures. Jatayu, a Vulture, is believed to have informed Lord Rama the direction in which his wife, Sita had been taken away after being abducted in a forest (3,000 BC). The bird is attributed with keen eyesight with long and high flights in the epic, Ramayana.

The Parsee community in India has particular association with Vultures which they hold in high esteem.

VULTURES IN INDIA

There are nine species of Vultures found in India :

1. King Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus). Also known as the Red-headed Vulture. Size: 84 cm. Resident throughout India. Found in open country, cultivated and semi desert areas, up to 2,000 meters.

2. Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus). Also known as the Black Vulture. Size: 100-110 cm. Winter visitor to semi-desert areas and dry temperate zone along the Himalayas, vagrant in Kutch, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Kerala.

3. Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus). Also known as the Eurasian Griffon. Size: 110-120 cm. Found in semi desert country and bare mountains. Winter visitor to North West India, Nepal, Bengal, Assam, and occasionally further south.

4. Himalayan Griffon Vulture (Gyps himalayensis). Also known as the Himalayan Vulture. Size: 122 cm. Resident (breeds) in the Himalayas from 600 to 2,500 meters.

5. Long-billed Vultutre (Gyps indicus). Size: 92 cm. Resident (breeds) in Peninsular India and extreme south-east Pakistan. Nests on cliffs in open countryside.

6. Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris). Size: 92 cm. Resident (breeds) in northern India on the Gangetic Plain along the lower Himalayas from Kashmir through Nepal, Bengal and Assam. Nests primarily in trees.

7. White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis). Also known as the White-rumped Vulture, Indian White-backed Vulture and Oriental White-backed Vulture. Size: 90 cm. Resident (breeds) throughout India except in extreme south-east. Open countryside up to 2,500 meters.

8. Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus). Also known as Scavenger Vulture. Size: 64 cm. Resident (breeds) throughout India. Found near towns and villages up to 3,600 meters.

9. Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus). Also known as Lammergeier. Size: 122 cm. Resident (breeds) in Himalayas and associated northern mountains in Kashmir, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. Normally 1,200 to 4,200 meters, soaring to over 7,000 meters.

Detailed descriptions of the White-backed and Long-billed Vultures have been presented in our earlier report (Vardhan et al., 2000).

HISTORY OF THE MORTALITIES

The first disappearance of a local population of White-backed Vultures was documented by Davidar & Davidar (2002) in the Sigur region of the Nilgiris. A population of 200-300 birds had disappeared by 1987, except for a very few birds observed in the late 1990s and in 2001. After the 1970s there were no nestings in an area that previously had at least ten nests each year; up to 50 vultures were observed at tiger and leopard kills through the 1970s, but none thereafter. Some vultures had been killed from the poisoning of carcasses of livestock killed by predators. Tigers were temporarily extirpated but their numbers have since recovered.

Until the end of the 1980s, several hundred White-backed Vultures were resident in the immediate vicinity of the Towers of Silence in Mumbai but thereafter were seen only very sporadically.

In September 1994 Dr. M. Gilbert found a freshly-dead White-backed Vulture on a trail in Keoladeo National Park that he had traversed an hour previously; the body condition was good and there were no signs of trauma. This was apparently the first observation of an unprecedented and unusual pattern of mortalities that has been associated with the population declines in all areas where detailed studies have been undertaken. A high incidence of mortalities was observed in KNP during the 1996-97 nesting season and in subsequent years. Birds dropped dead from their roosts, frequently remaining suspended in the branches, or died on their perches or on their nests; fledglings also were found dead in the nests (Prakash 1999; Prakash et al., 2003). About 50 deaths of Long-billed Vultures of all age classes were recorded in the Bayana colony south of Bharatpur that contained 75 nests in the 1999-2000 nesting season. Eighteen dead birds were found during a visit on 20 September 2000 (BNHS 2000).

High rates of mortalities were subsequently recorded in Pakistan from monitoring undertaken throughout the entire breeding season (Gilbert et al., 2002).

THE CENSUSES IN RAJASTHAN

With a view to ascertaining response of people and trying to impart information to them about vultures, we invited the prominent daily (The Rajasthan Patrika, published in Hindi simultaneously from several places in India, having circulation touching a million copies each morning) to join the Vulture Census in 2000. The response was generous; it offered its advertisement space without any cost. It further devoted its news columns to highlight the decline of Vultures. With its continuing support, the second Census was organised in 2002.

A two-pronged approach was adopted by the Rajasthan Patrika to acquaint people with the crisis likely to be faced by a society following the extinction or near extinction of vultures in their areas : (i) education and awareness through editorial columns, and (ii) direct advertisements.

On 14 Dec 02, a news item with a photograph of White-backed and Long-billed vultures was published : "Vultures disappear due to mysterious death."

Advertisement: 16 Dec 02 (Appendix 1): This advertisement copy had a bold two-word heading "Vulture Sight" with a large "Question-mark….?", asking readers: Where has gone your Vulture like Sight….? Further remarking: "What relationship readers of this daily can have for the sake of Vultures?" Finally commenting: "Wait until 19 Dec. Your Life Faces A Question Mark."

Advertisement: 17 Dec 02 (Appendix 2): This advertisement had the heading "The Vulture Sight at You so far, Now Your Sight at the Vultures." It reminded readers that the Rajasthan Patrika had set a new chapter in the recent conservation history of Rajasthan by organizing a Vulture Conservation Campaign from 28 to 31 January 2000. It hopes that the readers will recall this event, and asks, "What happened then? Through you, for you, for Vultures, by the Government? Several questions have remained outstanding, till this day! Therefore, Rajasthan Patrika once again….?" The bottom line in this one was: "Wait until 19 Dec. Your Life Faces A Question Mark."

Advertisement: 18 Dec 02 (Appendix 3): It had the heading "Vultures Thank the Readers" with a sketch of a Vulture. It informed the readers that lakhs of readers from six States had responded to the Vulture Conservation Campaign introduced by Rajasthan Patrika towards the end of January 2000.The bottom line in this one was: "Wait until 19 Dec. Your Life Faces A Question Mark."

Advertisement: 19 Dec 02 (Appendix 4): It had the caption "The crisis over Vultures Continues" with an appeal, "They wait for your help! Again." It carried two sketches of White-backed and Long-billed Vultures (made especially for the purpose by David Platford of the US). It informed readers and offered them tips to what they were expected to do:

* (a) how to identify the two species of Vultures

* (b) how to differentiate the one from the other

* (c) seek participation in the census to discharge their duties towards these birds

* (d) remind readers that initiatives made so far for Vulture conservation had been inadequate

* (e) remind them that the sightings of Vultures were few, and the Whitebacked was hardly spotted anywhere around cities/villages

* (f) the Vultures generally observed around hills and forest could be the Longbilled Vultures

* (g) winter months (Dec-Jan) were appropriate to spot them as it was nesting season for these birds, hence could be easier to spot them

* (h) try to spot the nest but beware that nest is not disturbed

* (i) invoke readers to join this international movement to help conserve the Vultures etc.

This advertisement carried a coupon which a reader was expected to fill in and send to the main office of the Rajasthan Patrika; one was to write in the coupon details like (a) names (b) address with telephone number (c) which species of the Vulture spotted - White-backed or the Long-billed (tick one or both of them), (d) place, date and time of spotting the Vulture (e) what was the Vulture doing when spotted (f) where was the nest spotted - on a tree, or over a cliff (g) any additional information.

The names of organisers were published at the bottom of this advertisement : Sponsored by the Rajasthan Patrika; The Rajasthan Patrika, Tourism & Wildlife Society of India, and the Rajasthan Department of Forest. Towards the end, a slogan was published : "Nature and Wildlife Conservation is the constitutional duty of the citizens of India, come forward to conserve the Vultures so as to improve the quality of life!"

As per the tariff of this daily, the value of these four advertisements was estimated to be Rs 3,15,000 (about US Dollars 6,000). The Rajasthan Patrika published all these Advertisements as complementary!

1. Editorial column : 19 Dec 02 : "Vulture Census Starts Today." (see appendix)

2. Editorial column : 20 Dec 02 : "Vulture Crisis Continues" (see appendix).

3. Editorial column : 25 Dec 03 : "Hundreds of Vultures Observed." (see appendix).

4. Editorial column : 26 Dec 03 : "Unhealthy Vulture Found" (see appendix).

5. 3 Photographs of Vultures over nests : 27 Dec 02 (see appendix).

6. Editorial column : 29 Dec 03 : Caution to identify vultures" (see appendix).

7. Editorial column : 31 Dec 02 : "16 Vultures Observed" (see appendix).

8. Editorial column : 31 Dec 02 : "Dogs pose threat to Vultures" (see appendix).

LAUNCHING OF THE CENSUS

A meeting was organised in Jaipur's Man Singh Hotel on 19 December 02 to formally launch the Vulture Census and discuss the present situation besides throwing open for public the debate to talk about the birds facing threat to extinction. Following participated :

1. Dr. Munir Ali Virani from The Peregrine Fund, USA
2. Dr. Martin A. Gilbert from The Peregrine Fund, USA
3. Dr. Gulab Kothari, Managing Director, The Rajasthan Patrika Ltd.
4. Dr. Anil K. Chhangani, Associate Professor, Jainarayan University, Jodhpur
5. Manoj Kulshreshta, BNHS-IBCN nominee in Rajasthan
6. Harkirat Singh Sangha, bird expert
7. Raj Pal Singh, wildlife expert
8. Dr. U.K. Thanvi, Director of Animal Husbandry, Rajasthan
9. Digvijay Singh Dhamotar, Hony. Wildlife Warden
10. R.N. Mehrotra, Chief Conservator of Forest, Rajasthan
11. Arun Sen, Chief Wildlife Warden of Rajasthan
12. Vishwambhar Modi, Treasurer, TWSI
13. Harsh Vardhan, Hony. Secretary, TWSI
14. Sunny Sebastian, Special Correspondent of The Hindu daily, and representatives from the press and prominent citizens of Jaipur.

The participants exchanged views over the observations they had of the two species of Vultures in different parts of India, Pakistan, Nepal etc, and made slide presentations. Drs. Virani and Gilbert emphasized the importance of counting the nests of these birds and monitoring them throughout the breeding season so as to determine reproduction success, survival of the chicks, and any mortalities of the adults (unfortunately such data are still lacking). The participants of this meeting urged that the Vulture Census be performed on 25 December 02 only, but also welcomed any information received from 21 to 31 December 02.

CENSUS RESULTS, RAJASTHAN
In the In 2000, a total of 2005 responses were received from Rajasthan, reporting a total of 16,917 vultures. Responses were received from all 31 districts, average 64.7, range 20-162 (Appendix 4, Vardhan et al., 2000). In 2002, a total of 1,044 responses were received, reporting a total of 4,495 vultures (Appendix 12, pages 1-11). The data are summarized in Table 1. In 2000, responses from Karauli were combined with those of S. Madhopur. The 2002 responses from these districts are reported separately in Appendix 12, but were combined in preparation of the data summaries presented in Table 1.

The average number of vultures reported per respondent was 8.8 in 2000, 4.3 in 2002, indicating population decreases in the order of 50% over the two year period (Table 1). In 2000, half of the districts reported a mean number of vultures reported per response of 8.5 or higher; in 2002 the median value was 2.8, three times lower (Table 1). From a decade ago, when vultures were among the most common birds in Rajasthan, the numbers reported in 2000 had indicated that a major decline in population numbers had taken place; the 2002 data indicate therefore that this pattern of decline has continued.

The summary data of Table 1 (Appendix 5) is based on the total number of responses and of vultures reported by district. Since they consist of pooled data and of means, rigorous statistical comparisons are not possible. The very large numbers of responses, however, preclude errors based on sample size.

No reports of no vultures were received. Since it is very likely that some persons would have looked for vultures without seeing any, we assume that such persons did not return a coupon to the newspaper. Since fewer vultures were seen in 2002, the bias introduced would further lower the average number of vultures reported per response in 2002.

Some respondents reported on Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus) as well as the Red-headed Vultures (Sarcogyps calvus), Their enthusiasm is noted with appreciation but this report is confined to the two Vulture species facing threats to their survival.

The Rajasthan data are summarized as follows (from Appendix 7)

* 21 Dec 02 : Total 277 Vultures were reported by 84 persons - 76 White-backed and 201 Long-billed Vultures

* 22 Dec 02 : Total 362 Vultures were reported by 88 persons - 144 White-backed and 218 Long-billed Vultures.

* 23 Dec 02 : Total 333 Vultures were reported by 75 persons - 224 White-backed and 109 Long-billed Vultures.

* 24 Dec 02 : Total 288 Vultures were reported by 104 persons - 152 White-backed and 136 Long-billed Vultures.

* 25 Dec 02 : Total 1,756 Vultures were reported by 372 persons - 637 White-backed, 1,076 Long-billed Vultures.

* 26 Dec 02 : total 525 Vultures were reported by 140 persons - 246 White-backed and 279 Long-billed Vultures.

* 27 Dec 02 : Total 286 Vultures were reported by 62 persons - 111 White-backed and 175 Long-billed Vultures.

* 28 Dec 02 : Total 302 Vultures were reported by 54 persons - 91 White-backed and 211 Long-billed Vultures.

* 29 Dec 02 : Total 98 Vultures were reported by 32 persons - 52 White-backed and 46 Long-billed Vultures.

* 30 Dec 02 : Total 276 Vultures were reported by 26 persons - 206 White-backed and 68 Long-billed Vultures.

* 31 Dec 02 Total 36 Vultures were reported by 7 persons - 11 White-backed and 25 Long-billed Vultures.

VULTURES REPORTED ON 25th Dec '02 :

Desert vs Non-Desert Regions : Desert region of Rajasthan covers 1,88,120 square kilometers, which is 55% of total geographical area of Rajasthan. It includes following districts : Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Jhunjhunun, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, and Sikar. A Total 814 Vultures was observed in the desert region, out of the total 1,756 Vultures seen in Rajasthan (47%).

The Non-desert region of Rajasthan covers 1,54,080 square kilometers, which is 45% of the total geographical area of Rajasthan. They are as follows : Ajmer, Alwar, Banswara, Baran, Bharatpur, Bhilwara, Bundi, Chittorgarh, Dausa, Dholpur, Dungarpur, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jaipur, Jhalawar, Karauli, Kota, Rajsamand, Sawai Madhopur, Sirohi, Tonk and Udaipur. 942Vultures were observed in this region on 25 December, 53% of the total Vultures seen.

NEIGHBOURING STATES

Data are summarized in Table 2 (Appendix 6) for both 2000 and 2002. The average number of vultures reported per response decreased from 4.6 to 2.2, with 33 responses in 2000 and 25 in 2002. These numbers are considered comparable to those obtained from Rajasthan.

THE DISEASE HYPOTHESIS

As noted above, at the Vultures Conservation Strategy Planning Meeting convened by Dr. Rhamani in Mumbai in 1999 to address the disappearance of the vultures, various causes were proposed. A shortage of food was not considered plausible; a large surplus of carcasses has been documented throughout the countrysides (e.g. Prakash et al., 2003). Necropsies of dead vultures have frequently noted abundant supplies of body fat, eliminating food shortage as a cause of the mortalities (Mishra et al., 2002; Oaks et al., 2001; Cunningham et al., 2001). The cutting down of large trees traditionally used as nesting sites has appeared to have locally reduced vulture populations in Assam (A. Choudhury, personal communication) and in Bangladesh (M. Sarker, personal communication), but can not explain the mortalities. Moreover, the cliff-nesting Long-billed Vultures have been affected along with the tree-nesting White-backed Vultures. Neither a change in pesticide use patterns nor an increase in the poisoning of carcasses to kill predators and mammalian scavengers could be documented (Risebrough, in press). All tests for pesticides, for other poisons present in food webs and for poisons applied to carcasses to kill tigers, wolves or other predators preying on livestock, turned up negative (Oaks et al., 2004; Oaks et al., in press). The hypothesis that the mortalities were due to a new disease factor that had 'jumped' from another species, just as the HIV and SARS viruses have 'jumped' from other species to infect humans, therefore emerged as the only plausible explanation (Risebrough, 2000). Dr. A. A. Cunningham of the Zoological Society of London began an active program to look for a disease factor, in collaboration with the Poultry Diagnostic and Research Centre in Pune (Cunningham et al. 2001). A parallel program was begun in Pakistan by Drs. Oaks, Martin and Virani in collaboration with their Pakistani colleagues.

A workshop devoted to the vulture crisis convened by BNHS in Delhi in September 2000 (Rahmani and Prakash 2000), a workshop at the 4th Eurasian Conference on Raptors in Sevilla in September 2001 (Katzner & Parry-Jones, 2001), a Roundtable Discussion at the International Ornithological Congress in China in August 2002 (Risebrough et al. in press), and the introduction to a session on the Asian vulture crisis at the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls in Budapest in May, 2003 (Risebrough in press) each adopted the disease hypothesis as the only plausible explanation of the vulture mortalities in the absence of a credible alternative. Yet intensive efforts to find a disease factor (Cunningham et al. 2001, Cunningham et al. 2003, Oaks et al. 2001, Oaks et al. in press) were all unsuccessful.

Whereas sick vultures observed in the field, frequently with drooping heads and necks, invariably died, those that were captured and brought to the Vulture Centre operated by the Bombay Natural History Society and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in Pinjore, Haryana, usually survived after being given food, water, and shelter. A factor other than an infectious disease therefore appeared to be the cause of the mortalities.

THE DICLOFENAC HYPOTHESIS
Visceral gout, the deposition of uric acid crystals throughout the visceral cavity, was observed during the first necropsies of birds that had died of the new 'disease', a bird that had died shortly after falling into water in Keoladeo National Park in October 1999, and another that was found dead in a garden in Delhi in December 1999 (Mishra et al., 2002). An indication of kidney failure, visceral gout has been a characteristic of birds dying of the 'disease factor' (Cunningham et al. 2003: 5 of 7 adults and subadults found dead; Oaks et al. 2001: 49 of 69 adult vultures found dead; Oaks et al., 2004: 219 of 259 adults and subadults found dead).

With all tests for a disease factor turning up negative, the researchers with The Peregrine Fund hypothesized that a veterinary drug used to treat domestic livestock might be responsible for both the visceral gout and the mortalities. An initial survey among 74 veterinarians and veterinary drug retailers in the region in Pakistan where they were working confirmed that diclofenac had recently come into widespread use; it was, moreover, known to induce kidney damage in mammals. Kidney samples from 23 vultures with renal failure and 13 vultures without renal failure that died of other causes were analysed for diclofenac. Each of the 23 vultures that had died of kidney failure contained diclofenac; diclofenac could not be detected in any of the others. The toxicity of diclofenac to White-backed Vultures was demonstrated by administering doses recommended for domestic livestock to two non-releasable juvenile vultures and doses of one-tenth the amount to two others. Both of the high dose birds and one of the low dose vultures died with visceral gout and with the same histologic lesions as had been observed in the wild birds (Oaks et al., in press).

The results of parallel studies undertaken in India are expected to be announced in the near future. The widespread use of diclofenac as a veterinary medicine in India has been confirmed; it is produced in a minimum of 48 formulations by a minimum of 27 companies. It was introduced as a veterinary medicine in or around 1994 (Risebrough, in press, 2004b). Other NSAIDs currently used as veterinary medicines in India but in lower amounts, such as naproxen and meloxicam, as well as analgin, formerly more widely used but largely replaced by diclofenac, act upon the same cellular enzyme systems as does diclofenac. Although the hypothesis that diclofenac has been the principal cause of the vulture mortalities has now gained general acceptance among the scientists and wildlife biologists studying the vulture decline, it must, however, be qualified to include a broader hypothesis that several or even all drugs of the NSAID group may be toxic to vultures.

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES: CONSIDERATIONS

With the exception of traditional dissidents, the following considerations appear to be have achieved a consensus within the scientific and wildlife communities in India:

1) although small groups of each of the three species continue to be observed, the populations of each continue to decline such that extinction in the wild over the entire Indian Subcontinent is to be expected within a very short time;

2) a program proposed by The Peregrine Fund that would have transported up to 100 White-backed Vultures and 100 Long-billed Vultures from Pakistan to facilities of the Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency of the United Arab Emirates in Dubai, pending construction of facilities for captive breeding in Dubai, Pakistan and possibly elsewhere, is at least temporarily suspended, the Government of Pakistan not having issued the necessary export permits. This development is disappointing to the international community since it would have guaranteed the long-term survival of two of the three species affected;

3) small relict populations of the White-backed and Slender-billed Vultures have been located in northern Cambodia, where they are being studied by scientists of the Wildlife Conservation Society. Nothing is known of the present abundance of these species in Bangladesh and in countries between Bangladesh and Cambodia, where they were formerly common, but it is believed that both are now very rare in these areas. These populations are likely to be genetically distinct from those in the Indian Subcontinent, such that separate, although parallel, conservation strategies might be developed for both;

4) the exceptionally high toxicity of diclofenac to White-backed Vultures, and the widespread use of diclofenac as a veterinary medicine throughout the Subcontinent, strongly support the diclofenac hypothesis. This hypothesis, however, must be qualified to include the probability that closely related drugs used as veterinary medicines in lower amounts, including analgin, naproxen and meloxicam have also contributed to the mortalities;

5) the Bombay Natural History Society has obtained permits from the State of Haryana to capture both adults and nestlings, but applications to the states of Assam, Punjab, Himachal and Rajasthan have as of early April, 2004 not been approved;

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES: CONCLUSIONS

1) although the banning of diclofenac as a veterinary medicine is the ultimate goal, the more immediate priority is to find an acceptable substitute;

2) prevention of extinction of each of the three species is now of the highest conservation priority in India;

3) extinction may be avoided only by capturing and maintaining in captivity a sufficient number of each species, until such time that a program of re-introduction into a cleaner environment might begin;

4) it is likely that the program will last for ten, even twenty years. Adequate funding must therefore be assured. Only public funding from normal allocations in established budgets will be adequate to meet the needs.

CONSERVATION STRATEGIES: SUGGESTIONS

1) Establishment of an all-India Commission that would examine and make recommendations for an acceptable substitute for diclofenac in veterinary medicine that is not toxic to vultures. We call upon the Wildlife Institute of India to take the initiative in this project, and to establish contact with all groups and individuals throughout the Subcontinent and the world who might contribute. From the beginning it might be acknowledged that international collaboration will be necessary for achievement of all of its goals. Any proposed substitute must be tested for its toxicity to vultures. The increasing scarcity of Gyps vultures in India precludes any such experiment in India, even if permission could be obtained. Experiments with the still abundant and closely-related African White-backed Vulture might be proposed. It is very likely that international funding will be available;

2) Establishment of a parallel all-India Commission that would oversee the development and implementation of a Recovery Plan, to include representatives of both private groups and governmental agencies. We call upon the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) to take the initiative in establishing this Commission. It should include representatives from both private scientific and conservation organizations and from government institutions. It should also include as advisors experts from abroad. Because of the urgency of the situation it is important that all organizations and individuals who might contribute be included or represented;

3) it is imperative that a minimum of 100 birds of each species be captured for their protection and maintained in both zoos and specialized facilities until the cause(s) of the mortalities in the wild are eliminated. To reduce the impacts of disease and of potential poisoning from the inadvertent use for food of meat from an NSAID-treated animal, it is also important that these facilities be as many as possible and in as many locations as possible.

4) applications for permits to capture both adults and nestlings should be granted expeditiously to BNHS and to any facility recognized by the Central Zoo Authority as being capable of maintaining vultures in captivity. The possession of facilities adequate for captive breeding need not be considered necessary at this stage for their capture and maintenance, given the more immediate priority to prevent birds from being poisoned in the wild.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We much appreciate the spontaneous cooperation of the Rajasthan Department f Forest, Department of Animal Husbandry (both having represented the Government of Rajasthan), Bombay Natural History Society, University of Rajasthan, in undertaking this census.

Our grateful thanks are to Dr. Gulab Kothari, Managing Director and Editor of The Rajasthan Patrika daily, for having supported the census by offering columns of his newspaper, both editorial and advertisement, free of cost, and his personal presence at the launch of the census in Jaipur. Through him, we wish to extend appreciation to all those respondents who supported the census initiative by sending their observation reports. The event establishes beyond doubt the instrumental role of media towards conservation of endangered species.

We acknowledge with thanks the (technical) support extended to this venture by Mr. David A. Ferguson of the US Fish & Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, and of Bodega Bay Institute of the US in offering data which were unavailable within India.

REFERENCES

Bombay Natural History Society. 2000. A Brief Report on the International Seminar on Vulture Situation in India, A.R. Rahmani and V. Prakash, Organizers. Bombay Natural History Society. Mumbai. 25 pp.

Cunningham, A. A., V. Praksh, G. R. Ghalasi, and D. Pain. 2001. Investigating the cause of catastrophic declines in Asian griffon vultures, Gyps indicus and G. bengalensis. Pp. 9-10 in Reports from the Workshop on Indian Gyps vultures. 4th Eurasian Congress on Raptors. (Eds.: Katzner, T. & J. Parry-Jones). The National Birds of Prey Centre, Newent, Gloucestershire, UK. 19 pp.

Cunningham, A. A., V. Prakash, D. Pain, G. R. Ghalsasi, G. A. H. Wells, G. N. Kolte, P. Nighot, M. S. Goudar, S. Kshirsagar, and A. Rahmani. 2003. Indian vultures: victims of an infectious disease epidemic? Animal Conservation 6:189-197.

Davidar, E. R. C. and P. Davidar. 2002. Possible causes for the decline of Oriental White-rumped Vultures Gyps bengalensis in the Sigur region (Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu), India. Vulture News 47:3-6.

Gilbert, M., M. Z. Virani, R. T. Watson, J. L. Oaks, P. C. Benson, A. A. Khan, S. Ahmed, J. Chaudhry, M. Arshad, S. Mahmood, and Q. Ali Shah. 2002. Breeding and mortality of Oriental White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Punjab Province, Pakistan. Bird Conservation International 12:311-326.

Katzner, T. and J. Parry-Jones, eds. 2001. Reports from the Workshop on Indian Gyps vultures. 4th Eurasian Congress on Raptors, Sevilla, Spain. September 2001. 2001. The National Birds of Prey Centre, Newent, Gloucestershire, UK. 19 pp.

Mishra, S. K., G. Prasad, Minakshi, Y. Malik, N. K. Mahajan, and V. Prakash. 2002. Vulture mortality: Pathological and microbiological investigations. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 72:283-286.

Oaks, J. L., B. A. Rideout, M. Gilbert, R. Watson, M. Virani, and A. A. Khan. 2001. Summary of diagnostic investigation into vulture mortality: Punjab Province, Pakistan, 2000-2001. Pp. 11-12 in Reports from the Workshop on Indian Gyps vultures. 4th Eurasian Congress on Raptors. (Eds.: Katzner, T. & J. Parry-Jones). The National Birds of Prey Centre, Newent, Gloucestershire, UK. 19 pp.

Oaks, J. L., M. Gilbert, M. Z. Virani, R. T. Watson, C. U. Meteyer, B. A. Rideout, H. L. Shivaprasad, S. Ahmed, M. J. I. Chaudhry, M. Arshad, S. Mahmood, A. Ali, and A. A. Khan. 2004. Diclofenac Residues as the Cause of Vulture Population Decline in Pakistan. Nature 427:630-633.

Oaks, J. L., C. U. Meteyer, B. A. Rideout, Shivaprasad, M. Gilbert, M. Virani, R. T. Watson, and A. A. Khan. (In the press) Diagnostic investigation of vulture mortality: The anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac is associated with visceral gout. Proceedings, Sixth World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls. Budapest.

Prakash, V. 1999. Status of vultures in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan with special reference to population crash in Gyps species. J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 96:365-378.

Prakash, V. and A. R. Rahmani. 2000. A Progress Report on Status and Distribution of Gyps Species of Vultures in India. Bombay Natural History Society. Mumbai. 30 pp + figures,.

Prakash, V., D. J. Pain, A. A. Cunningham, P. F. Donald, N. Prakash, A. Verma, R. Gargi, S. Sivakumar, and A. R. Rahmani. 2003. Catastrophic collapse of Indian white-backed Gyps bengalensis and long-billed G. indicus vulture populations. Biological Conservation 109:381-390.

Rasmussen, P. C. and S. J. Parry. 2001. The taxonomic status of the "Long-billed" Vulture Gyps indicus. Vulture News 44:18-21.

Risebrough, R. W. 2000. Population Crash of the Gyps Vultures in India: Evidence for a Disease Factor and Recommendations for Emergency Efforts. Report to the Division of International Conservation, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. The Bodega Bay Institute, Berkeley. 12 pp.

Risebrough, R. W. (In the press, 2004a) Population Collapses of Three Species of Gyps Vultures in the Indian Subcontinent: An Overview. Proceedings of the 6th World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls, Budapest.

Risebrough, R. W. (In the press, 2004b) Diclofenac: A new environmental poison in South Asia. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Risebrough, R. W., M. Z. Virani, T. E. Katzner, and J. W. Duckworth. Collapse of Vulture Populations in Southern Asia. Acta Zoologica Sinica: Proceedings of the 23rd International Ornithological Congress (in the press).

Vardhan, H., D. Khandal, H. S. Sangha, and Kulshreshta. 2000. Gyps Vultures: Census Report 2000. Tourism & Wildlife Society of India. Jaipur. 36 pp.

APPENDIX 1
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APPENDIX 2
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Appendix 3
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Appendix 4
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Appendix 5
Table 1

Appendix 6
Table 2

Appendix 7
(Tables of vultures observed on 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31 Dec, 02).